7.1 FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE PRIMATES

From the point of view of their morphology the living primates are best considered in twelve natural groups of Families.

Tupaiidae }

Lemuridae }

Indriidae } Malagasy families ->Prosimisn families

Daubentoniidae }

Lorisidae }

Tarsiidae }

Callitrichidae }

Cebidae } New World monkey families }

Cercopithecidae ->Old World monkey family } Anthropoid families

Hylobatidae Lesser Ape family }

Pongidae Great Ape family }

Hominidae Human family

7.1.1 PROSIMIAN FAMILIES

1. Tupaiidae

This family comprehends the treeshrews which comprise five genera: Tupaia, Dendrogale, Urogale, Anathana and Ptilocercus. Geographically they are widely distributed throughout the Far East.

2. Lemuridae

A Madagascan family comprising Lemur, Hapalemur, Lepilemur, Cheirogaleus, Microcebus, Phaner, Allocebus and Varecia.

 3. Indriidae

This family includes the long-legged Madagascan lemurs: Indri, Propithecus and Avahi.

4. Daubentoniidae

A monotypic family comprising the aberrant Madagascan lemur: Daubentonia, or the Aye-aye.

5. Lorisidae

The family of lorises and galagos which has representatives in the Far East(Nycticebus, Loris) and Africa (Perodicticus, Arctocebus and Galgo)

6. Tarsiidae

A monotypic family containing the single living representative: Tarsiers. Tarsiers are found on many islands of the East Indies. e.g. Borneo, Philippines.

7.1.2 ANTHROPOID FAMILIES

7. Callitrichidae

South American family consisting of five genera of marmosets and tamarins: Callithrix, Cebuella, Saguinus, 1,eontideus and Callimico.

8. Cebidae

The largest family of South American monkeys comprehending all remaining genera, i.e. Aotus, Callicebus, Pithecia, Chiropotes, Cacajoa, Cebus, Saimiri, Alouatta, Ateles, Lagothrix and Brachyteles. 

g. Cercopithecidae

Monkeys of the Old World (Africa and Asia). An historically continuous family now subdivided geographically into: Presbytis, Nasalis, Simias, Rhinopithecust Pygathrix, Cynopithecus (Asia); and Papio, Colobus, Cercopithecus, Erythrocebus, Theropithecus, Cercocebus, Mandrillus (Africa). Only one genus Macaca, is common to both regions.

10. Hylobatidae

Lesser Apes of the Far East ranging from Assam is the West to Borneo in the East. The family comprehends two genera: Hylobates and Symphalangus.

11. Pongidae

Great Apes of the Old World. Africa: Pan and Gorilla. South-East Asia: Pongo.

12. Hominidae

Represented by a single world polytypic species, Homo sapiens (man).

 

Table 1 Enlarged PrimateSpecies(a)

Sceintific Name	Common Name	Distribution	where listed(B)
LEMURIDAE	-	-	-
All members of the	Lemur	Malagasy Republic and Comoro Island	E,I
genera	-	-	-
Lemur	-	-	-
Hapalemur	-	-	-
Lepilemur	-	-	-
Cheirogaleus	-	-	-
Microcebus	-	-	-
Phaner	-	-	-
Allocebus	Lemur	Malagasy Republic	E,I
Varecia	Lemur	Malagasy Republic	E
LORISIDAE	-	-	-
Loris tardigradus	Slender loris	India, SriLanka(Ceylon)	I
Nycticebus Pygmaeus	Lesser slow loris	Vietnam, Laos	T
INDRINDAE	-	-	-
All members of the gerera:	-	-	-
Avahi	Avahis	Malagasy Republic	E,I
Indri	Indri	-	-
Propithecus	Sifakas	-	-
DAHBENTIONIIDAE	-	-	-
Dahventioniidae madagascariensis	Aye-Aye	Malagasy Repubic	E, I
CALLITRICIIIDAE	-	-	-
Callimico goeldii	Goeldi's marmoset	Brazil, Colombis, Peru	E,I
Caliithrix aurita	White-eared marmoset	Brazil,	-
Callithrix falviceps	Buff-headed marmoset	Brazil	-
Leontideus spp. (all species)	Golden-rumped tamarin (goldenheaded tamarin; golden-lion marmoset)	-	-
Saguinus bicolor	Pied tamarin	Northern Brazil	E,I
Saguinus leucopus	white-footed tamarin	Northern Colombia	T,I
Saguinus	Cotton-top marmoset	Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia	E,I
CEBIDAE	-	-	-
Alouatta Palliata (= villosa)	Howler monkey	Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia	E,I
Alouatta pigra	Black howler monkey	Mexico, Guatemala, Belize	E, I
Ateles geoffroy frontatus	Spider monkey	costa Rica, Nicaragua	E,i
Ateles geoffroyi	-	-	-
panamensis	Spider monkey	Costa Rica, Panama	E,I
Brashyteles	Woolly spider monkey	Brazil	E,I
arachnoides	Woolly spider monkey	Brazil	E,I
Cacajao spp.(All species)	Uakari	Peru, colombia Brazil, Venezuela	E,I
Chiropotes albinasus	white-nosed saki	Brazil	E,I
Lagothrix flavicauda	Yellow- tailed woolly monkey	Andes of northern Peru	E
Saimiri oestedii( Saimiri sciureus oerstedii)	Red-backed squirrel monkey	Costa Rica, panama	E,I
CERCOPITHECIDAE	-	-	-
Cercocebus galeritus galeritus	Tana River mangabey	Kenya	E,I
Cercocebus torquatus	White-collard managabey	Senegal to Ghania; Nigeria to Gabon	E
Cercopithecus diana	Diana monkey	Coastal West Afriaca	E
Cercocebus erythrogaster	Red-bellied monkey	Western Nigeria	E
Cercopithecus erythrotis	Red-earned nose spotted monkey	Nigeria, Fernando Po	E
Cercopithecus ihoesta	L" Hoest's Monkey	Upper eastern congo Basin, Cameroon, Nigeria	E
Colobus badius Kirkii	Zanzibar red colobus	Tanzania	E,I
Colobus Badius rufomitratus	Red colobus	Kenya	E,I
Colobus satanas	Black colobus	Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Gaban, Zaire	E
Macaca silenus	lion-tailed macaque	India	E,I
Macaca Cyclopis	Formosan rock macaque	Taiwan	T
Macaca fuscata	japanese macaque	Japan (Shikoku, Kyushu, and Honshu Islands)	T
Macaca arctoides	Stump-tailed macacque	Assam(India), to southern China	T
Macaca sinica	Toque macaque	Sri Lanka (Ceylon)	T
Masalis larvatus	Paroboscis Monkey	Borneo	E, I
Papio leucophaeus	Drill	Western Cameroon, Eastern Nigeria	E
Papia sphinx	Mandrill	Central West Africa	E
Prebytis entellus	Langur	China (Tibet), India, Nepal, Srilanka ,Pakistan , Kashmir, Sikkim, Bangladesh	E, I
Presbytis francoisi	Francios' leaf monkey	Indochina, Kwangsi(People's Republic of China)	E, I
Presbytis geei	Golden langur	Assam, Bhutan	E, I
Presbytis Pileatus	Capped langur	India, Burma	E, I
Presbytis, Potenziani	Long-tailed langur	Mentawi Islands, Indonesia	T, I
Presbytis senex	Purple-faced langur	Sri Lanka	T
Pygathrix namaeus	Douc langur	Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, China	E, I
Rhinopithecus avunculus	Tokin snubnosed monkey	Vietnam	T
Simias concolor	Pagi Island Langur	Indonesia	E, I
HYLOBATIDAE	-	-	-
Hylobates	Gibbons	China, Burma, India	E, I
Symphalangus	Siamang	Thailand, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula)	E, I
PONGIDAE	-	-	-
Gorilla	Gorilla	Central and Western Africa	E,I
Pan paniscus	Chimpanzee	Zaire	T, I
pan troglodytes	Chimpanzee	Western and central Africa	T, I
Pongo pygmaeus	Orangutan	Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia	E,I

**aAdapted from the U.S. List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (Revised January 17, 1979, (Federal Register 44 (12): 36

36-3654) and the appendixes of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; April 3, 1980, Federal Register 45(66): 22848-22862.

**bEndangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973; T =Threatened under Endangered Species Act of 1973; I = Listed in Appendix I of the Convention.

The Interagency Primate Steering Committee (IPSC) was established in October 1974 with representatives from seven components of the federal government. The IPSC was given the tasks of developing a national primate plan for using and supplying primates for biomedical needs (IPSC, 1980) and assigning national priorities for primate use. As the availability of primates declines, these priorities are to be filled first. The IPSC also published in its report the following criteria for developing and reviewing research proposals using primates:

• - That the research proposed call be done best with primates, i.e., that no other known system or other kind of animal could produce comparable results.
• - That the species of primates proposed is the most appropriate and that some other more plentiful species would not be adequate.
• - That the number of primates proposed is the minimum that will produce acceptable scientific results.
• - That the primates will not be sacrificed during or at the end of the study except in those cases requiring termination as part of the investigation.
• - That, if sacrifice is deemed necessary, positive action will be taken to share body material when feasible.

It recommended that these criteria be implemented by all government agencies that conduct or otherwise support research, education, and testing.

Inquiries concerning the above criteria and the activities of the IPSC should be addressed to the Interagency Primate Steering Committee, Building 14G, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20205. Nongovernmental institutions can obtain information and guidance from the IPSC to assist in their primate programs.

7.2 TAXONOMY AND ABBREVIATED PROFILES OF THE ORDER PRIMATES

The taxonomic classification used here generally follows that of Napier and Napier (1967). Their book contains many excellent photographs of primates. Geographical information on site of capture may be helpful for proper identification. The commercial suppliers and country of origin of some primates may be found in Animals for Research - A Directory of Sources (ILA 1979) which is revised periodically.

Primates belong to the class Mammalia and the order Primates, which has classically been divided into the suborders Prosimii and Anthropoidea (Table2).

Table 2 Abbreviated Classification of Living Nonhuman Primates

SUBORDER PROSIMII

Many members of the six families of prosimians have a body and shape that resembles squirrels or rats more than the higher primates. They mature more rapidly than do anthropoid monkeys and have a seasonal reproductive cycle. They are principally nocturnal insectivores but some are frugivorous and/or carnivorous. 

DAUBENTONIIDAE, INDRIIDAE, AND LEMURIDAE (ayes-ayes, indrises, lemurs)*

These families live only in the Malagasy Republic and the Comoro Islands off the east coast of Africa. They range in size from less that G.5 to 10 kg. Because members of these three families are threatened with extinction, their capture and export are illegal. 

TUPAIIDAE (treeshrews)

This family, which includes about 5 genera, 10 species, and numerous subspecies, is frequently included in the order Insectivora rather than Primates. - They are found throughout Southeast Asia, India, the Philippines, Borneo, Java, and Sumatra. Treeshrews have short I whiskers and an elongated nose. Most adults weigh 150-350 g,

 LORISIDAE (angwantibos, lorises, pottos, and galagos)*

The 6 genera and 11 species of this family live in the tropical forests and woodland savannas of Africa and numerous forested areas of Southeast Asia. They are nocturnal and arboreal. Lorises and pottos have either no tail or a very short one, whereas the tail of the galagos (bushbabies) is long and bushy. Adult~ weigh 0.2-1.5 kg, 

TARSIIDAE (tarsiers)

The three species of Tarsiidae live in the tropical rain forests of Indonesia and the Phil ippines. They are nocturnal, insectivorous, and carnivorous. Adults weigh 80-170 g.

SUBORDER ANTHROPOIDEA

This suborder is divided into six families. Some major characteristics are unicornate uterus, pectoral mammae, deciduate j placenta, and a lacrimal foramen in the bony orbit of the skull. 

CALLITRICHIDAE AND CEBIDAE (NEW WORLD MONKEYS)

Physical characteristics shared by New World monkeys are three premolar teeth and a nonopposable thumb; most Cebidae have widely spaced nostrils (platyrrhine condition). Cheek pouches, ischisl callosities, and a sigmoid flexure of the terminal colon are absent in both neotropical families.

CALLITRICHIDAE*

The Callitrichidae is divided into 5 genera and more than 15 species, They have claws or clawlike nails on some digits and, except for Callimico, the members have two molars. The genera Saguinus and Leontopithecus (or Leontideus are called tamarins; the genera Callimico, Callithrix, and Cebuella are generally called marmosets. Tamarins range from east to the Panama Canal Zone into South America. Adults form pairs and live in family groups. They are arboreal, diurnal, and omnivorous and usually bear twins. Adults weigh 70-900 g. 

CEBIDAE*

This family has 11 genera and about 29 species. It is very heterogeneous group found in Central and South America; all are arboreal and diurnal except the genus Aotus, which is nocturnal.

• - Alouatta (howler monkeys)* This genus includes five species that range from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. Their hyoid bone are expanded into a large resonating chamber for their vocalizations, which accounts for the common name "howler." Adults weigh 7-9 kg. Their dietary requirements make them exceedingly difficult to maintain in captivity.
• - Aotus (night monkeys or owl monkeys) These nocturnal primates are widely distributed throughout Central and South America. Retina is composed wholly of rods. Several different Karyotypes have been reported in this genus. Adults range from 0.7-1.2 kg in body weight.
• - Ateles (spider monkeys)* The four species and numerous subspecies are large, slender primates with a protuberant abdomen, long limbs, a prehensile tail, and no thumb. They range from southern Mexico to Bolivia. Adults weigh about 5-7 kg.
• - Brachyteles (woolly spider monkeys)* The woolly spider monkey is a rare New World monkey found in southeastern Brazil. Like Ateles, they have no thumb. Adults weigh approximately 8 kg.
• - Cacajao (uakari monkeys)* The three species of Cacajao are found in tropical South America. They are rare and are the only New World primates with a short tail. Their most striking physical characteristic is a bare forehead that varies from black to red.
• - Callicebus (titi monkeys) The three species of Callicebus that occur in tropical South America vary in coat color from blackish brown to reddish. They are difficult to maintain in captivity. Adults weigh 400-500 g.
• - Cebus (cebus or capuchin monkeys) Cebus has four species within two major groups that can be distinguished by coloration patterns, particularly on the head: the tufted capuchin (C. apella) and the untufted capuchins (C. capucinus, C. albifrons, and C. nigrivittatus). They are arboreal and live in most types of tropical forests of Central and South America in groups of 8 to 30 individuals Adult weigh 1.5-3.5 kg.
• - Chiropotes ((bearded sakis)* Bearded sakis are found in tropical South America. They have a coat of thick, long and predominantly black hair. Adults weigh 2.0-3.5 kg.
• - Lagothrix (woolly monkeys)* Lagothrix includes two species found throughout the Amazon River Basin. They are large primates with muscular bodies and dense, woolly grayish-brown to black fur. They are difficult to establish in Captivity. Adults weigh 4-10 kg.
• - Pithecia (saki monkeys) The two species are found in South American tropical rain forests. The hair coat is thick, coarse, and predominantly black or dark gray. Adults weigh about 1.5 kg.
• - Saimiri (squirrel monkeys)* There are two species, S. sciureus (common) and S. oerstedii (red-backed), and numerous poorly defined subspecies. They are found in Central and South America and are among the smallest Cebidae.

Squirrel monkeys are frequently used as research animals and acclimate well to a laboratory or breeding colony environment. Varieties of common squirrel monkeys are morphologically heterogeneous and display different behavior patterns. A mixture of different varieties of these monkeys in research studies may influence

experimental results and reports of studies should specify the origin and presumed variety of the squirrel monkeys. Adult male weigh 0.6-1.2 kg; adult females weigh 0.35-0.8 kg.

CERCOPITHECIDAE (OLD WORLD MONKEYS)

This family has about 14 genera whose physical characteristics include ischial pads; a sacculated colon divided into ascending, transverse, and descending portions with a sigmoid flexure; and no appendix. They are grouped into two subfamilies, the Cercopithecinae, which are discussed first, and the Colobinae.

• - Cercocebus (mangabeys)* Cercocebus has about seven species. nlese primates live in the tropical rain forests of Africa. They are large monkeys with slender bodies, long limbs, and tails. The eyelids and supraorbital skin are white to gray.
• _ Cercopithecus (vervets, grivets, and guenons)* There are about 11 species and approximately 70 subspecies of this genus living in various parts of Africa. Many belong to the subgenus Cercopithecus, which includes the vervet or African green monkey. Adult males weigh 3.1-6.4 kg and adult females weigh 1.8-3.9 kg. The smallest species of Cercopithecid is the talapoin monkey (Miopithecus talapoin). Adult Cercopithecus are two to six times larger than Miopithecus, which weigh 0.7-1.3 kg.
• - Erythrocebus (patas monkeys) E. patas, the only species in the genus is a large terrestrial animal that lives in sub-Saharan Africa. It is closely related to Cercopithecus. Adult males weigh up to 15 kg and adult females up to 7 kg.
• _ Macaca (macaques) This genus has 12 species and about 46 subspecies. Its range includes North Africa, Gibraltar9 and Asia from Afghanistan to China and Japan. These monkeys are medium to large, heavily built, and the hair coat is various shades of brown to black. They move readily along the ground as well as in the trees and typically stuff their cheek paunches during foraging. ~i~acaques are the best-known members of the family Cercopithecidae. The most commonly used species in research are the rhesus macaque, Macaca mulatto, and the cynomolgus or long-talled macaque, fascicularis. Adult female rhesus weigh 3-8 kg; adult males weigh 6-14 kg.

Adult long tailed macaque are slightly smaller.

The twelve species of Macaca are listed below:

PAPIO AND THEROPITHECUS (baboons).

Baboons are large-bodied animals with marked sexual dimorphism. They are found throughout much of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to northern Ethiopia in social groups that range in size r from few to many and that may coalesce into large herds. Their diet includes fruits, grasses, roots, lizards, insects, and occasionally meat. Adult females I weigh approximately 13 kg; adult males about 25 kg.

• Papio (drills, mandrills, baboons)* Mandrills (Papio sphinx)* and drills (Papio leucophaeus)* are principally terrestrial animals of West Africa. The nose of male mandrills is bright red with longitudinal bright blue paranasal swellings .

The savaanna baboon, Papio cynocephalus is the baboon most commonly used in research and contains four groups or subspecies that have frequently been considered distinct species (P. papio-west coastal Africa; P. anubis and P. cynocephalus-east central Africa; P. ursinus - South Africa). Research findings obtained from the baboons should include an accurate description of the animals, the presumed subspecies, and their origin. I They occupy a wide range of vegetational zones, including subdeserts, I savannas, and forests. Minor habitats include rocky cliffs, gorges, and seaside cliffs. Also included in this genus is the hamadryas or sacred baboon, P. hamadryas, of northeast coastal Africa. The males have well-developed, colorful manes and are approximately twice the size of females.

• Gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada) are terrestrial and live on the grassy mountain slopes of Ethiopia. Males have a long heavy mane. Both sexes have a patch of hairless grayish-blue to yellow or red skin on the anterior chest. In females, this patch is surrounded laterally and inferiorly by caruncles. 

COLOBUS,* NASALIS,* PRESBYTIS,* PYGATHRIX* RHINOPITHECUS,* AND SIMAIAS.*

These monkeys are found in Africa and many parts of South and Southeast Asia. Among the subfamilial characteristics that these genera of colobines are the presence of a large sacculated stomach and the absence of cheek paunches. They consume large amounts of young leaves and are frequently called "leaf-eaters.'' Most adults are mediusn-sized to large monkeys, weighing 6-20 kg. Colobus (guerezas)* This African genus have five species and numerous subspecies. As in the case of Cercopithecus, this is a heterogeneous group of monkeys. Their appearance ranges from large size with long glossy black hair, white mantles, and white bushy tails to relatively small size with short olive-gray hair. Adults weigh 3.5-10.0 kg.

Nasalis (proboscis monkeys)* Proboscis monkeys are found in the forests and mangrove swamps of Borneo. The nose of the adult male is long, bulbous and drooping, whereas that of the female is less devel oped. They are arboreal, herbivorous, and frugivorous. Adult males weigh 11 to 24 kgt and adult females weigh 8 to 12 kgs

Presbytis, Pygathrix, Rhinopithecus, and Simias (langurs)* There are about seven species and numerous subspecies of langurs, which are found throughout South and Southeast Asia. Presbytis live from the high altitudes in the Himalayas to the rain forests of Indochina. Members of other genera live mainly in the rain forests of Southeast Asia. The stomach is large and sacculated and their diet consists largely of leaves, and includes fruit, buds,shoots, and bark. Adult males weigh 3.5 to 21.0 Kg, and adult females weigh 3 to 17 kg. 

HYLOBATlDAE AND PONGIDAE (apes)

Major characteristics of this group are arms that are longer than legs and no tail. They are principally fruit and vegetable eaters. Adult gibbons form pairs and live in family units; orangutans are solitary; chimpanzees and gorillas live in small to large groups.

Hylobates (gibbons) and Symphalangus (siamangs) Six species of gibbons are found in the primary forests of Southeast Asia. The gibbons are the only apes having ischial callosities and long canine teeth. Symphalangus is found in the tropical rain forests and at elevations up to 2,700 m in Sumatra, Malaysia, and Thailand. These animals are more heavily built than Hylobates. Their black coat is long and shaggy, whereas Hylobates has black to brown, much denser fur. Both have laryngeal air sacs covered by hairless skin beneath the chin. Adult siamangs weigh 9-13 kg: adult gibbons weigh 4-8 kg.

Pan (chimpanzees) There are two species, P. troglodytes and P. paniscus found in the forested regions of West Africa. The pygmy chimpanzee, P. paniscus, is found in the enclave formed by the Congo and Lualaba rivers. P. troglodytes are large robust chimpanzees and have pale, mottled, or darkly pigmented faces. In the wild, adult males weigh about 50 kg, and adult females weigh about 40 kg

• - Pango pymaeus (orangutang0 Orangutans are found in Sumatra and Borneo. They are predominantly vegetarian and are dependent upon mature tropical rain forests, Their hair is coarse and long, especially over the shoulders and arms, and their color varies from reddish-brown to maroon. They have a large laryngeal air sac. Adult males weigh 75-100 kg, and adult females weigh 35-40 kg.
• - Gorilla gorills (gorillas)* Gorillas are found in equatorial Africa from the lowland rain forests up to 2,400 m. They have bare black faces with flared nostrils; the arms are long, particularly in lowland forms; the coat skin color of all races is black or dark brown. In the wild adult males weigh 140 180 kg and adult females weigh 75-110 kg.

7.3 MAJOR ANATOMIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN "OLD WORLD" AND "NEW WORLD" PRIMATES

7.4 HUSBANDRY AND MAINTENANCE OF PRIMATES

7.4.1 HUSBANDRY

• A.Facilities housing nonhuman primates should be designed and constructed to meet the federal and state laws.
  • 1.Federal Animal Welfare Act of 1970, Public Law 91-579: Establishes standards for housing, sanitation, feeding, watering, separation of species, ventilation and veterinary care.
  • 2.National Institutes of Health, Policy Health Service Policy On Humane Care and use of Laboratory Animals by Awardee Institutions (NIH Guide for Grants and Contracts, U.S.D.H.H.S; Vol. 14, No. 8, June 25, l985): Institutions and organizations using warm blooded vertebrate animals in projects supported by NIH must evaluate their facilities following the guidelines established in Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, NIH Publication No. 86-23, Revised l985.
• B.Primate facilities should have special areas for:
  • l.Receiving and quarantine of newly acquired primates
  • 2.Research or stable colony
  • 3.Isolation area - for housing animals showing signs of contagious disease
  • 4.Intensive Care Area - A well equipped medical facility
• C.Requirements for Animals Rooms:
  • 1.Easy to clean, impervious surfaces
  • 2.Temperature - Ambient temperature of indoor facilities should not be allowed to fall below 64o F. When ambient temperatures reach 85o F provisions should be made for cooling or increasing air movement. The recommended temperature for primate facilities is 76-78o F.
  • 3.Ventilation should be adequate to control ordors. 10-15 air changes per hour is recommended.
  • 4.Relative humidity - 40-60% is recommended for most nonhuman primates, however marmosets and tamarins should be maintained at 30-70% (range 60-65%) relative humidity.
  • 5.Lighting - A diurnal light cycle of 12 hours of light per day is recommended.
• D.Caging - Cages should be constructed of stainless steel or aluminum alloy however galvanized steel or plastic is acceptable. A typical cage for individual housing is stainless steel or aluminum alloy with a flush waste pan, solid walls, automatic watering device, and a movable restraint wall.
  • 1.New World monkeys are arboreal and most have long tails so more vertical space is generally required.
  • 2.Space recommendations for nonhuman primates - Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, Revised l985.

   

FLOOR AREA/ANIMAL

SPECIES WEIGHT (Square) HEIGHT

__________________________________________________________

Group 1: Marmosets, Up to l kg 0.15 m (1.6 ft) 50.8 cm

tamarins,and infants (20 in)

of various species.

__________________________________________________________

Group 2: Capuchins, 1 to 3 kg 0.28 m (3.0 ft) 76.2 cm

squirrel monkeys and (30 in)

similar species.

__________________________________________________________

Group 3: Macaques 3 to 10 kg 0.40 m (4.3 ft) 76.2 cm

and African species (30 in)

__________________________________________________________

Group 4: Male 10 to 15 kg 56 m (6.0 ft) 81.28 cm

macaques and (32 in)

large African

species

__________________________________________________________

Group 5: Baboons 15 to 25 kg 0.74 m (8.0 ft) 91.44 cm

and non-brachiating (36 in)

species larger than

15 kg

__________________________________________________________

Group 6: Great apes 25 kg or 2.33 m (25.l ft) 213.36 cm

and brachiating more (84 in)

species

__________________________________________________________

E.Daily Maintenance:

l.Sanitation

Cages should be cleaned at least once daily with a germicidal detergent solution. Care should be taken not to wet the animal during cleaning. Cages should be sanitized in a standard cage washer at least every 4 weeks or prior to the introduction of a different primate.

2.Water

Automatic watering devices should be checked daily. Water bottles should be cleaned and sanitized each time they are filled. Newly acquired animals may have to be pan watered until they become familiar with watering devices.

7.4.2 Preventive Medicine

A well defined program of preventive medicine is extremely important in a colony of nonhuman primates. A separate quarantine facility and an established quarantine protocol is one of the foundations of this program. Good husbandry cannot be over-emphasized. The other essentials are as follows:

• A.Routine and frequent inspection of the animals by personnel competent to recognize signs of illness. Animal technicians familiar with individual animals should inspect these animals daily. Any signs of illness should be reported immediately to the veterinarian.
• B.Animals with signs of illness should be removed and isolated for prompt diagnosis and therapy. Facilities should be available for isolation, intensive care, surgery and radiology. Laboratories should be available to aid in the prompt diagnosis. These laboratories should include:
  • 1. Bacteriology
  • 2. Hematology
  • 3. Clinical Biochemistry
  • 4. Parasitology
  • 5. Virology
  • 6. Post-mortem facility

• C.All animals dying from spontaneous or experimental disease should be necropsied.
• D.Routine physical examinations of all animals in the colony - This can be on a semi-annual in old world species or annual basis in new world species.
• E.Periodic weighing of animals- Animals should be weighed on a monthly basis to detect chronic disease. Significant weight loss dictates a medical workup.
• F.Tuberculin testing - All animals should be tuberculin tested at least quarterly. Utilize the procedure outlined in the quarantine protocol.
• G.Medical records - Complete animal records should be kept in the vicinity of the animal quarters.

7.4.3 Vermin control

Insect and wild rodents should be controlled as they may serve as intermediate hosts for certain parasitic diseases or introduce diseases such as salmonellosis. Record of vermicidal agent used, should be kept.

7.4.4 Feeding

Primates maintained for biomedical research can usually be maintained on commercial diets. Fresh fruit and vegetable may be offered but should not be required if commercial diets are fresh and stored properly.

• A.Primates require vitamin C. This vitamin is labile under adverse storage conditions. Check the labels on feed sacks for the manufacturing date. Feed should be utilized within 12 weeks of manufacture, and stored at 70o F temperative.
• B.New World primates can not utilize D2, so D3 is necessary in their diet. These animals also have a higher requirement for protein. Commercial diets for New World primates are available with D3 and 25% protein.
• C.The daily ration should weigh about 4% of the animal's body weight. Animals should be fed twice daily.

7.5 NON-HUMAN PRIMATE DISEASES

(Compiled by Kunwar K. Srivastava, October 1986)

Laboratory primates are susceptible to and are carriers of a wide variety of bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic diseases. Many of these are transmissible to and/or acquired from humans. Therefore, these diseases are not only important causes of primate mortality and morbidity, but are significant hazards to human health as well. These diseases are transmitted via the feces, urine, primate bites, aerosol, or arthropod parasites. It is, therefore, important to attend to the principles of proper sanitation, handling, and management when handling primates. A person without the proper knowledge of primates must not be allowed to work with them.

The following is a survey of the primate diseases which have been reported:

7.5.1 BACTERIAL DISEASES OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

7.5.1.1 Respiratory Diseases

1.TUBERCULOSIS: Mycobacterium tuberculosis; (ACID-FAST BACILLI)

• a.Transmission: Ingestion, direct contact, contaminated equipments.
• b.Clinical Signs: Usually insidious. Dull, in-different, anorexia. Dyspnea, coughing, weight loss. Lymphadenopathy with draining fistulas. Chronic diarrhea. Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. Central nervous system signs.
• c.Diagnosis: Skin testing; use old tuberculin (give 0.1 ml intrapalpebrally, read test at 24, 48, and 72 hrs. after injection; if positive, re-test in two weeks). Take radiographs. Acid-fast stain of sputum.
• d.Treatment: Not recommended, euthanatize and perform a complete necropsy. If treatment desired, give Isoniazid @ 10-25 mg/kg body weight, s.i.d., throughout the life of the animal.
• e.Public Health Hazard: YES. Spreads from primates to man and from man to primates. USE EXTREME CARE.

Other Mycobacterium species:

• M. intracellular avium
• M. bovis
• M. leprae
• M. africanum
• M. scrofulaceum

 

2.BORDETELLOSIS: Bordetella bronchiseptica; (Gram-negative coccobacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Mucopurulent nasal discharge, mouth breathing, mild to severe pneumonia, coma, death.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification.
• c.Treatment: Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity. Give oxytetracycline, ampicillin, erythromycin, perform nasal flushing with warm saline solution.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

3.STREPTOCOCCOSIS:

Streptococcus pneumoniae; old genus name Diplococcus, Pneumococcus (Gram-positive, lancet shaped cocci in pairs. Most common cause of pneumonia in non-human primates.

• a.Clinical Signs: Anorexia, weight loss, fever, frequent shivering, and high pulse rate. Nasal discharge. Cough and cyanosis. Shortness of breath, labored breathing. Meningitis; characterized by muscle tremors, lethargy, ataxia, flaccid hindlimb paralysis, sporadic colonic seizures, nystagmus, constricted pupils, cervical rigidity.
• b.Diagnosis: Clinical signs. Gram-stained smears. Bacterial isolation and identification.
• c.Treatment: Fluids I.V. or S.Q. Antibiotics - penicillin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

4.KLEBSIELLOSIS: Klebsiella pneumoniae; (Gram-negative bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Depression, anorexia, lethargy, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, facial edema, fever, and dyspnea.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification.
• c.Treatment: Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity, give ampicillin, streptomycin, sulfonamide.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.2 Enteropathogenic Diseases

1.SHIGELLOSIS: Shigella flexneri; (Gram-negative, lactose negative, non-motile bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Diarrhea soft, watery, or bloody, hunched posture, fever, depression, lethargy, emaciation, tenesmus with rectal prolapse.
• b.Diagnosis: Clinical signs. Bacterial culture and identification.
• c.Treatment: Vigorous fluid therapy. Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity, give Septra (Trimethoprim), Bactrim, and Tribrissen. Can give Kaolin and Pectin P.O., still need to use antibiotics. Organism develops resistance readily.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES, extremely hazardous.

2.SALMONELLOSIS: Salmonella enteritidis var.typhimurium; (Gram-negative, motile, lactose fermenting bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Diarrhea, vomiting, lethargy, anorexia, dehydration may lead to death.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification, or histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Give fluids I.V. Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity, give Chloramphenicol, Septra (Trimethoprim), Tribrissen, and Bactrim.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES, highly hazardous.

3.COLIBACILLOSIS: Escherichia coli; (Gram-negative motile bacilli) May be secondary to Shigella, Salmonella or other infections.

• a.Clinical Signs: Mild to severe diarrhea, may progress to bloody diarrhea.
• bDiagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification.
• c.Treatment: Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity, give Neomycin (Biosol M), Chloramphenicol.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

4.CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS: Campylobacter fetus ss. jejuni; (Gram negative spiral-shaped bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Anorexia, bloody diarrhea, rectal prolapse.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification. Can use serology. Warthin-Starry silver stain of direct fecal smears or histopathological tissue sections.
• c.Treatment: Fluid therapy. Give antibiotics- Erythromycin is of choice.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES, highly hazardous.

7.5.1.3 MISCELLANEOUS BACTERIAL PATHOGENS

7.5.1.3.1 NOCARDIOSIS:

Nocardia asteroids; (Gram-positive rods which usually show branching filaments, may be partially acid-fast)

• a.Clinical Signs: Depression, anorexia, listless, diarrhea, may see pneumonia, or may see cutaneous lesions, or both.
• b.Diagnosis: Staining characteristics of the organism, or histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Can use Sulfa drugs, Tribrissen. Parental Sodium iodide. Chest drains and Betadine lavage.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES.

7.5.1.3.2 PSEUDOMONIASIS or MELOIDOSIS:

Pseudomonas pseudomallei (Gram-negative medium-size, motile rods)

• a.Clinical Signs: Pyemic abscesses, draining lymph nodes, pneumonia, endocarditis and pericarditis, osteomyelitis.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification from exudates or lesions.
• c.Treatment: Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity, give Kanamycin, Novabiocin, Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES, 80% fatal in humans. USE CARE.

7.5.1.3.3 PASTEURELLOSIS:

Pasteurella multocida (Gram-negative, bipolar staining, coccobacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Depression, anorexia, fever, dyspnea, otitis media* and meningitis*

  *may show extreme weakness, unsteady head posture "head-tilt", unsteady gait, circling and nystagmus.

• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification from exudates or lesions. Clinical signs,or histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Can use Penicillin, Tetracycline, Erythromycin, and Chloramphenicol.
• d.Public Heath Hazard: YES.

7.5.1.3.4 TETANUS:

Clostridium tetani; (Gram-positive, anaerobic, terminal spore-forming rod). Common in wild primates.

• a.Clinical Signs: Slow, deliberate, stiff gait toppling, trismus, extensor rigidity, opisthotonus, abdominal respiration,
• b.Diagnosis: Clinical signs, and histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Unrewarding. Prevent by tetanus toxoid immunization.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.5 LEPTOSPIROSIS:

Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae (Stain poorly with Gram-stain. Use Giemsa or Wright stain, India ink or nigrosin negative stain, Silver impregnation, or darkfield microscopy.

• a.Clinical Signs: Diarrhea, vomiting, anorexia, polyuria, polydipsia, icterus or anemia in heavy infection. May see ulcerations on tongue.
• b.Diagnosis: Use special stains as described above for the demonstration of spiral shaped organisms. Can use darkfield microscopy. Bacterial isolation and identification. Histopathology. Serology.
• c.Treatment: Can use Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline. Prevent by vaccination.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES, USE CARE.

7.5.1.3.6 YERSINIOSIS:

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Gram-negative, motile, coccobacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Dull, lusterless haircoat. Decreased activity. Anorexia, emaciation. Diarrhea.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification. Use special stain for slide(s).
• c.Treatment: Provide supportive therapy. Use antibiotics based upon sensitivity. Can give Chloramphenicol, Amikacin, Aminoglycosides, Ampicillin, Tetracycline.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.7 DERMATOPHILOSIS or STREPTOTRICOSIS or STREPTOTHRICOSIS Dermatophilus congolensis; (Gram-positive, branching, filamentous rod, form motile zoospores.

• a.Clinical Signs: Exudative dermatitis with scab formation.
• b.Diagnosis: Detection of mycelia-like organisms in skin scrapings or in biopsy sections.
• c.Treatment: Give high doses of Penicillin-streptomycin; Cyclophosphamide combined with pen-strep. Dips and/or sprays; Zinc sulfate, alum, magnesium fluosilicate, Chloramphenicol.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.8 Haemophilus influenzae (Gram-negative pleomorphic rods; require X (hemin) or V (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) factor or both.

• a.Clinical Signs: Sneezing, lacrimation, rhinitis, nasal secretion; acute and purulent sinusitis; cough, depression, inactivity, shivering and fever.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification, may be clinical signs.
• c.Treatment: Use Gentamycin and Cotrimoxazole.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.9 .TYZZER'S DISEASE: Bacillus piliformis; (Gram-negative, spore-forming, obligate anaerobic, bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: anorexia, depression, diarrhea, rapid deterioration, and death.
• b.Diagnosis: Histopathological sections of the lesions. Use Warthin-Starry silver stain to stain the organisms in the tissue. Must see organisms in the tissue before calling it positive for Tyzzer's disease. See necrotic foci in the liver.

  NOTE :That the organism does not grow on any commercial media. It grows only in 9-day-old chick embryos or in tissue culture.

• c.Treatment: Give supportive therapy. Chloro-tetracycline is effective, can give through drinking water. Avoid stress.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.10 ANTHRAX IN PRIMATES: Bacillus anthracis; (Gram-positive, aerobic, spore-former, highly pathogenic, bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Weakness, lethargy, and depression.
• b.Diagnosis: Blood smears of a recently dead animal will have encapsulated, square-ended, Gram-positive bacilli.
• c.Treatment: Penicillin, Tetracyclines, Chlor-amphenicol, Erythromycin, and Streptomycin are effective.
• d.Public Health Hazard: USE, use extreme care.

7.5.1.3.11 Chromobacterium violaceum: (Gram-negative, motile, bacilli)

• a.Clinical Signs: Decreased activity, depression, anorexia, dehydration, and death.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification from the lesions. Histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Can use Aminoglycosides, Chlor-amphenicol, and Tetracyclines.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.12 Erysipelothrix insidiosa: (old species name E. rhusiopathiae) Gram-positive, non-motile, catalase-negative bacilli.

• a.Clinical Signs: Fever, depression, cough, icterus.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification from the lesions. Histopathology.
• c.Treatment: Use Penicillin, and Erythromycin.
• d.Public Health Hazard: YES. Use care.

7.5.1.3.13 Proteus mirabilis:

Gram-negative, lactose negative, motile bacilli, may or may not show swarming growth on selective media for enterobacteria; e.g., MacConkey agar, Brilliant green bile agar, and Salmonella-Shigella (SS) agar.

• a.Clinical Signs: Cystitis, other urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and gastroenteritis.
• b.Diagnosis: Bacterial isolation and identification.
• c.Treatment: Use broad spectrum antibiotics eg. Neomycin (Biosol M), Chloramphenicol.
• d.Public Health Hazard: NONE.

7.5.1.3.14 RAT BITE FEVER: (Zoonotic Disease)

Cause:

Streptobacillus moniliformis Spirillum minus. Mostly acquired from rodents.

7.5.1.3.15 .RELAPSING FEVER: (Zoonotic Disease)

Cause:

Borrelia recurrentis

Mostly acquired from infected tick or louse bites. See relapsing fever with leukocytosis and albuminuria. Treat with Penicillin, Tetracycline, or Chlor-amphenicol.

7.5.1.3.16 TRENCH MOUTH:

Cause:

Borrelia vincentii

See ulcerations in the gum and oral cavity. Treat with antibiotics as in 14. above.

7.5.1.3.17 TREPONEMATOSIS:

Cause:

Treponema sp. (Treponema Fribourg-Blanc)

Considered a "silent pathogen." See only ulcerations on the skin. Treat with antibiotics as in 14. above.

7.5.1.3.18 Clostridium perfringens: Type A toxin.

Causes:

Acute gastric dilatation.

7.5.1.3.19 Corynebacterium ulcerans:

Causes :

pharyngitis

7.9.1.3.20 Corynebacterium equi:

Causes pneumonia.

7.9.1.3.21 .Actinobacillus equuili:

Two squirrel monkeys were infected. Not of much significance.

7.5.2 VIRAL DISEASES OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

Table of Spontaneous Viral Diseases of Non-human Primates

I.POXVIRIDAE

Description: All genera except Parapoxvirus are brick-shaped complex particles, measure 225 X 300 nm. Poxviruses multiply in cytoplasm. Largest of all DNA viruses.

A.Genus: Orthopoxvirus

1.MONKEYPOX:

• a.Susceptible Hosts: Macaques, baboons, colobus, vervets, apes, squorrel monkeys, owl monkeys, marmosets, man, and giant anteaters.
• b.Transmission: Aerosol, ingestion or cutaneous inoculation.
• c.Clinical Signs: Fever, general body rash, and prominent facial (palpebral or labial ) edema. Lymphadenopathy.
• d.Gross Lesions: SKIN: Macule, papule, vesicle, pustule, crust. MOUTH: Crateriform ulcers. Eruptions both the skin and mucous membranes.
• e.Histopathology: SKIN: Acanthosis is prominent and ballooned cells have intracellular edema. Vesicles are obscured by coagulation necrosis. There is moderate to intense PMN cell infiltration. Intracytoplasmic inculsion bodies (ICIB) are small, eosinophilic and may be multiple. LYMPH NODE: Necrosis of germinal follicles.
• f.Treatment: None. Control secondary infections. Prevent by vaccination. Monkey Pox vaccine can be used. Vaccination of personnel not recommended at the present.
• g.Public Health Hazard: YES, may be fatal.

B.Other Poxviruses

• 1.VACCINIA VIRUS
• 2.VARIOLA VIRUS
• 3.WHITE POX VIRUS:

Smallpox in non-human primates is clinically, grossly and microscopically indistinguishable from the monkeypox. Whitepox is a name given to several poxviruses isolated from the kidney of animals from Central Africa. Antigenically it is closely related to variola than to monkey pox. Whitepox has not been associated with spontaneous disease in apes, except one isolate from a wild chimpanzee. Its status as a disease-causing agent is unclear.

C.Unclassified Poxviruses

1.BENIGN EPIDERMAL MONKEY POX (B.E.M.P.):

Synonyms:

Tanapox (primarily a human term commonly used in Africa); OrTeCa Virus (Oregon-Texas-California virus); Yaba-like virus; Virus 1211.

• a.Susceptible Hosts: Rhesus, Japanese and pig-tailed macaques, man.
• b.Transmission: Scratches.
• c.Clinical Signs: Multiple papules on face, thorax, perineum, occasionally the digits. Papules are sharply circumscribed and prominently umblicated.
• d.Gross Lesions: Single or multiple erythematous circular elevations about 2-4 mm in size above the skin. The umblicated papules exfoliate in about 10 days, leaving well-demarcated, red lesions about 10-15 mm in diameter.
• e.Histopathology: The epidermis is thickened, acanthotic and undergoes ballooning degeneration. ICIB's are large, eosinophilic and irregular. Nuclei are swollen and contain a large clear central area. The nucleolus is peripheralized and ICIB's are sometimes seen peripherally. Mild (occasionally moderate) PMN cell infiltrations are present usually in the epidermis. The dermal vessels have mild cuffs of inflammatory cells. EM study has demonstrated the intranuclear inclusion bodies (INIB's) to consist of membrane structures - no viral components have been demonstrated.
• f.Treatment: None. Control secondary infections.
• g.Public Health Hazard: YES.

2.YABA VIRUS:

• a.Susceptible Hosts: Stump-tail, pig-tail, rhesus macaques, Mangabeys, Patas, baboon, vervet and man.
• b.Clinical Signs: Usually benign symptomatology. May see listlessness with intermittent anorexia.
• c.Gross Lesions: Localized subcutaneous swelling, usually less than 4 cm in diameter. Occasionally necrosis and ulceration of overlying skin is evident.
• d.Histopathology: Somewhat resembles a canine histiocytoma. There are large polygonal cells with vesicular nuclei. The mitotic rate is low to moderate. ICIB's are eosinophilic with narrow halos. Mononuclear cell infiltrates are most prominent at the periphery of lesions. By 60-70 days, mostly fibrous tissue remains, with prominent perivascular cuffs of inflammatory cells.
• e.Treatment: None. Control secondary infections.
• f.Public Health Hazard: Experimental infection in man.

3.MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM:

• a.Susceptible Hosts: Chimpanzee, man, horse, kangaroo, and sea lion.
• b.Clinical Signs: No generalized symptoms.
• c.Gross Lesions: Small 2-5 mm domed wax-like papules most evident on the face and eylids.
• d.Histopathology: Epithelial hyperplasia. The ICIB's (called Molluscum bodies) are characteristic; these are numerous and very large.
• e.Treatment: None. Control secondary infection.
• f.Public Health Hazard: Unknown.

II.HERPESVIRIDAE:

Description:

Enveloped icosahedral nucleocapsids. Diameter of enveloped virions: 180-250 nm; and of naked nucleocapsids: 100 nm. Herpesviruses cause type A nuclear inclusions (single large acidophilic inclusion bodies separated by a nonstaining halo from basophilic marginated chromatin).

A.Subfamily: Alphaherpesvirinae

1.Delta Herpesvirus (Herpesvirus varicella).

Synonyms: Simian Varicella-Zoster-like herpesvirus; Patas herpesvirus; Liverpool vervet virus (LVV); Medical Lake Macaque herpesvirus (MLM).

• a.Susceptible Hosts: Patas, vervet, pig-tail, Japanese and crab-eating macaques.
• b.Clinical Signs: Pyrexia with depression and lethargy in fatal cases; variable anorexia; rash; facial edema and dyspnea.

c.Gross Lesions:

SKIN:

Severe inguinal rash, vesivcles and scabs. Eyelids edematous in most cases. Progression from macule to vesicle to crust is seen.

MOUTH:

See ulcers.

ALIMENTARY TRACT:

Necrotic ulcers from pharynx to colon.

HEART-LUNG:

See petechiation.

LIVER:

Always very friable, mottled with hemorrhages.

SPLEEN:

Swollen, soft and pulpy.

ADRENALS:

Occasional focal hemorrhages.

• d.Histopathology:

SKIN:

Herpetiform vesicles begin as foci of ballooning degeneration. These progress to necrosis with hemorrhage and exudation. INIB's eosinophilic type are present. Syncytial cells are also observed.

LIVER AND OTHER ORGANS: See focal to diffuse necrosis with INIB's.

• e.Treatment: None.
• f.Public Health Hazard: NONE. Human chickenpox has been transmitted to young great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, and gorilla).

2.Herpesvirus simplex 1

Synonym: Herpes Simplex 1; Herpesvirus hominis

• a.Reservoir Host: Man
• b.Fatal host: Tree shrews, Owl monkeys, gibbon
• c.Clinical Signs:

IN OWL MONKEYS AND TREE SHREWS:

Weakness, anorexia,and incoordination; oral and labial ulcers and herpetic vesicles; conjunctivitis; ulcerative dermatitis. Death occurs in 2-3 days; the mortality rate is essentially 100%.

IN GIBBONS:

Excoriation at the labial commissures or small, well-circumscribed vesicles that ulcerate and B become crusty and necrotic. Encephalitic symptoms, if they occur, begin 2-3 months later.

• d.Gross Lesions:

IN OWL MONKEYS AND TREE SHREWS:

Undistinguishable from Herpes T infection (see later). Necrotic foci which are often hemorrhagic, may be seen in the liver, lymph nodes, adrenals, and mucous membranes. Ulcerative vesicles may be seen in the skin.

IN GIBBONS